Trace The Historical Emergence Of Pakistani Writings In English From Pre-Partition Roots To Contemporary Global Acclaim
Introduction to Pakistani Literature in English
Pakistani Literature in English is historically grounded in the pre-partition era of the Indo-Pak Subcontinent. It was the period of British colonization that established the foundations of the pronounced spread of the English language in the Indian territory. English was initially introduced as a means of communication between the colonizers and the colonized, which led to its adoption as an official language for the state and administrative machinery. Gradually, it was introduced into the school curriculum, thereby paving the way for its selection as the language of instruction. English gained a prominent position among the regional languages of this part of the world not only because of colonization but also owing to its unique recognition, utilization, and application value. Eventually, literary artists of this region used the English language as a means of their creative expression to access a global readership, being the international lingua franca.
Pakistani literary writings in English originated within this backdrop and have earned international recognition and garnered scholarly acclaim. Its origin can be traced to the politically charged writings of Mumtaz Shahnawaz (1912- 1948), an educated Muslim female from the Subcontinent, who established
the foundations of English literary writings in Pakistan. Her novel ‘The Heart Divided’ (1958) was published posthumously and is the first South Asian English novel on Partition which is, ‘permeatedby a strong consciousness of herself as an educated Muslim woman and political activist, welding both the personal and the public’ (Shamsie, 2005, p. xi). The novel was published unedited by her family, serving as the foremost literary writing in English.
The struggle for an independent country for the Muslims of India opened up new possibilities for the Muslim females, of education, training and employment as survival strategies thereby blurring the boundaries between private and public to accommodate this change (Datta, 2006), which ultimately paved the way for the creative artists to use literary expression as a tool to assert themselves as well as to attract the worldwide attention to their nobles cause of independence from colonial domination.
Shamsie (2008), a leading authority on Pakistani Literature in English, outlines the trajectory of contemporary English writings beginning with the publication of Bapsi Sidhwa’s debut novel, ‘The Crow Eaters’, in 1978, ‘hers was also the first English novel by a resident Pakistani since Partition to receive international recognition, regardless of gender’ (p. 2).
However, the historical roots of short story can be traced in the publication of Zaib-un- Nisa Hamidullah (1921-2000)’s, ‘The Young Wife and Other Stories’ (1958), which can be termed as the only noteworthy fiction produced by Pakistani women since 1947 (Rahman, 1991).Many of the stories in this publication deal with suppressed sexuality and oppressive conditions for females in Pakistan. Thus, the very first production of Pakistani short fiction in English is a representation of feminist consciousness, especially the title story which depicts the ‘subaltern’ young wife. Rahman (1991) argues that by the 1950s, writers in Pakistan began to agree with ‘the prescriptive dictum that their work must have an extra-literary purpose, namely to ‘serve the society’ … this propagandist and chauvinistic view of literature gained official support later’ (p. 9-10). Within the premise of such socio-literary context, Shamsie (2017) traces the historical development of Pakistani short story in English and asserts:
In the first three decades of Pakistan, the publication of English short story collections with some literary merit heavily outnumbered novels… it should be noted, however, that in the 1960s and 1970s, the short story was very much a part of the extensive literary activity in Pakistan’s Anglophone circles despite impediments of censorship, martial law, and debates over the English language.
Shamsie (2017) highlights the role of female writers in the development of Pakistani short story besides men and discusses the literary works of Bina Shah (2007), Maniza Naqvi (2009), Tahira Naqvi (1997, 2001), Talat Abbasi (2001), in addition to Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah (1958). Besides these female writers, some prominent male figures on the literary canvas of Pakistani short story in English include the chief examples of Aamer Hussein (1993, 1999, 2002, and 2007) and Tariq Rahman (1989, 2002). Despite several constraining elements, Pakistani short story in English continued to develop and exist on its own, and earned international acclaim:
In the last decade of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first, the Pakistani English short story by writers of Pakistani origin came into its own and continued to draw increasing critical attention. This period was largely dominated by expatriate writers of short fiction but in the global age, the earlier distinctions between diaspora and resident writers blurred. (Shamsie, 2017: 484) The contemporary generation of Pakistani writers of English reflects a spirit of national consciousness through their works by highlighting issues of social, cultural, political and religious importance. The main theme of Pakistani English fiction deals with the idea of immigration which entails not only geographical displacement but also identity crises resulting in psychological and emotional suffering. Pakistani fiction in English also focuses on the issues of the feudal class system, damaging social and cultural practices originating from misinterpretation of Islamic values, superstitious beliefs, demystifying Islam phobia in the west as well as political upheaval in the country.
Pakistani Fiction in English
The genre of fiction has gained supremacy over poetry and drama, in the recent times, which is evident through an increasing number of writers of Pakistani origin receiving critical acclaim internationally; see for example (Waterman, 2015), this is surprising because poetry has been a favoured mode of expression since the beginnings of Pakistani literature in English and has had more practitioners, Mansoor (2012) makes a similar observation when she asserts:
Interestingly, Pakistani Literature in English has also evolved into a widening genre that is winning critical acclaim and is also becoming the object of scrutiny under the microscope of various literary theories. While Pakistani writers of fiction in English have monumentally chiseled their names on the international literary scene, Pakistani poets writing in English have yet to reach the same prominence. (p. 14)
The more pronounced growth of Pakistani English fiction in the recent times is a direct outcome of the status of English in Pakistan. English enjoys the most privileged position, as compared to variousother languages spoken in the country including the national language Urdu. The use of English has become well-defined in recent years in the country; it is the language of almost all the domains of power including government, bureaucracy, judiciary, military, education, commerce, media etc. In the context of globalization, English’s position in Pakistani society is quite strengthened. Thus, in the present times, English language has become an indispensable feature of the linguistic scenario of Pakistan. Owing to its unique significance in the international scenario, Pakistani writers are naturally inclined to use English as a means of their creative expression. It is partly determined by their personal desire to have a wider audience at a global level and partly because of their diasporic identity. Shamsie(2008) points out the wider scope of Pakistani literature which continues to expand with migrants settling into the English-speaking world:
The fanning out of migrants into the English-speaking diaspora, accompanied by the facility of travel and the growth of the electronic media, has provided an impetus to Pakistani English literature; it reaches a broad Anglophone audiencebut, in Pakistan, it has a much smaller readership than indigenous languages and literatures which are more widely spoken and read. Thus, Pakistani women who enjoy English as a creative language live between the East and the West, literally or figuratively, and have had to struggle to be heard. They write from the extreme edges of both English and Pakistani literature. (Shamsie, 2008, p. 1)
Female writers have been playing a key role in the development of Pakistani literature in English in general and strengthening literary tradition in fiction writing in particular. Their significant contribution can be realized from the fact that the foundations of English literature in Pakistan were established by a woman ― Mumtaz Shahnawaz (1958), short fiction writing originated with the work of a woman ― Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah (1958), and it was again a woman whose writings introduced Pakistani fiction in English to the world community and received international acclaim ― Bapsi Sidhwa (1978). However, this does not entail that the literary journey has been smooth to excel, female writers have to face certain constraints while writing in English, Shamsie (2008) refers to these constraints thus: …is to reveal how Pakistani women, writing in a global-albeit imperial-language, challenge stereotypes that patriarchal culture in Pakistan and the diaspora have imposed on them, both as women and as writers. (Shamsie, 2008, p.1)
Within the genre of fiction, Pakistani novel written in English has received much scholarly attention and critical acclaim at the national as well as international level, see for example (Waterman,2015; Chaudary, 2013; Khan, 2013), however, short fiction
— stories received virtually little or no attention at all. Shamsie (2010) makes a bold claim in this regard:
The acquisition of English as a creative language in Pakistan (and indeed the other countries of South Asia) is the direct result of the colonial encounter – a literary inheritance which has continued to grow and develop to increasing critical acclaim over the last fewdecades. The focus of this international attention has been the Pakistani English novels while the Pakistani short story has been drowned under the collective term ‘fiction’ although it has hadmany practitioners since Partition. (p.135)
Pakistani fiction in English reflects unique diversity of its own kind with respect to the wide range of themes and issues it addresses. These issues highlighted in Pakistani writings though grounded in Pakistani politics and culture yet reveal the consciousness of international politics and world order. Therefore, Pakistani English writings may be termed as post-colonial fiction because it is produced in a former British colony after the decolonization. Hassan (2016) perceives the significance of the English language as an enabling factor in this regard:
The earlier colonized nations through their writers are trying toput forward their perspective to the world at large. In doing so they are borrowing a tool of their once masters and using it to create literary texts. This tool is the English language which is providingthem cultural, social, political and global dimensions. (Hassan, 2016: 126-127)
Pakistani English Feminist Fiction
Pakistani English fiction often reflects feminist consciousness while highlighting the issues of feminist concern. The patriarchal hold in the lives of women and its oppressive mechanism finds expression in Pakistani fiction. Ahmad (2009) discusses this distinguishing feature of feminism in the context of postcolonial fiction thus:…the voice of feminism is more audible in postcolonial fiction, including Pakistani fiction, than anywhere else. The writers of postcolonial fiction have tried to portray women and women’s issues in many such situations… Third World women tend to be depicted as victims of male control and of traditional cultures.
Thus, postcolonial fiction is a manifestation of analytic activism which highlights social injustices that still form part of the everyday experiences of many women. It consistently focuses on the marginalization of the ‘other’ through the ruling structure as well as politics of gender. It, also, highlights an inherent inability of western feminist theory and practice which generally creates homogenized and universalistic discursive categories paying no attention to the ‘real life experiences’ of many women in the ‘third world’ and in marginalized communities of thedeveloped world who are the victims of ‘double colonization’. Thus, post-colonial fiction offers resistance to dominant colonial discourses and presents the indigenous perspective convincingly and Pakistani fiction is no exception in this regard and is the finest manifestation of this critical consciousness. This detailed analysis of the origin and evolutionary development of Pakistani short fiction in English serves two critical functions. On my hand, it highlights the role of female writers in establishing and strengthening literary tradition in short fiction and, on the other hand, it also reveals that Pakistani short stories in English received virtually little or no scholarly attention as compared to the novel form.
The state of scholarly critique of Pakistani literature in English is not carried out very extensively as compared to other varieties of world literature in English. This owes a great deal to the fact that no proper anthologies are published to keep track of all Pakistani writings in English. There are only a few notable figures worthy of praise who have contributed todocumenting the historical development of Pakistani literature including but not limited to Alamgir Hashmi, Tariq Rehman and Muneeza Shamsie.
Pakistani English literature, in the present times, has established itself as a distinct and independent variety of world literature which is critically acclaimed in the English- speaking world. Pakistani literature in English is greatly appreciated for its rich literary tradition and stylistic aesthetics. However, this journey has never been very easy and smooth but many creative artists deserve appreciation for this incredible achievement. However, there have been many constraining elements despite the fact that English now enjoys the most privileged statusin Pakistan, a kind of social capital, using English as a lingua franca is an ‘emotionally charged idea’ for a significant proportion of Pakistani society. Though there is a significant shift in the political perception of Pakistani society regarding the privileged position of English as it is official language, still promoting English writings is not an easy task. English is still associated with British colonial powers, and the spread of English is perceived as a threat to many regional languages of Pakistan, scarce readership of English literature, disassociating it from Indian literature and establishing it as an independent genre, producing literature of literary merit.
Pakistani English Poetry
Pakistani poetry in English is a vibrant and evocative form of artistic expression that encapsulatesthe rich cultural heritage and diverse experiences of the Pakistani people. It is a unique amalgamation of traditional poetic conventions, social commentary and personal narratives, all beautifully woven together in the English language. Pakistani poetry in English traces its roots back to the British colonial era when English education and literature became prevalent in the region. The early pioneers of Pakistani English poetry, suchas Daud Kamal, Shahid Suhrawardy and Alamgir Hashmi, were influenced by renowned Englishpoets like W.B. Yeats, T.S. Eliot, and William Wordsworth. These poets played a pivotal role in introducing English poetry as a creative outlet for Pakistani writers.
Pakistani poetry in English covers a wide array of themes, reflecting the social, political and cultural milieu of Pakistan. These themes often include love, longing, nostalgia, identity, migration, political unrest, social inequalities, and the quest for personal and national harmony. Pakistani poets delve into topics such as the partition of India, the struggles of marginalized communities, the beauty of Pakistani landscapes and the complexities of cultural hybridity. Pakistani poetry in English serves as a bridge between Pakistani culture and the wider internationalliterary landscape.
It offers a unique perspective on Pakistani society, history, and the lived experiences of its people, while also enriching the global poetic canon. Pakistani poets in Englishhave garnered international recognition, participating in renowned literary festivals, winning prestigious awards, and gaining critical acclaim for their exceptional literary contributions. Pakistani poetry in English serves as a powerful medium for Pakistani writers to express their thoughts, emotions, and experiences in a language that resonates with both local and global audiences. It encapsulates the cultural, social, and political intricacies of Pakistan, offering a nuanced understanding of the nation’s diverse narratives. Through its evocative verses, Pakistani poetry in English continues to leave an indelible mark on the literary landscape, ensuring that the voices and stories of the
Pakistani people are heard and appreciated worldwide.
Pakistani Literature in English as Post-Colonial Literature Pakistani literature in English is an integral part of post-colonial literature, representing the literary expression of a nation that emerged from the shackles of British colonialism. It reflects the complex dynamics of power, identity, cultural heritage and the quest for self-representation in a post-colonial context. As stated earlier, Pakistani literature in English emerged after the partition of India in 1947 when Pakistan gained independence from British rule. English had been the language of administration and education during the colonial era, and it continued to be widely spoken and written by the elite and educated classes in Pakistan. Pakistani writers, while rooted in their own cultural traditions, began to utilizeEnglish as a tool for creative expression, reclaiming it from its colonial associations. Pakistani literature in English often explores themes that are central to the post-colonial experience. These themes include identity, cultural hybridity, the legacy of colonialism, political and social unrest, gender dynamics and the struggles of marginalized communities. Pakistani writers in English address issues such as the partition of India, the trauma of displacement, the clash of traditional and modern values, the impact of Western influences and the search for a distinct Pakistani identity. Pakistani literature in English employs various narrative strategies to convey the complexities of the post-colonial experience. Writers often incorporate elements of magical realism, myth, folklore, and oral storytelling traditions, merging them with Western literary techniques. This fusion allows for a unique blending of cultural perspectives and challenges dominant narratives while offering alternative ways of understanding and representing Pakistani history and society.
Pakistani literature in English has played a crucial role in shaping the post-colonial literary landscape. It offers a unique perspective on Pakistan’s history, society, and culture, challenging stereotypes and enriching the global literary canon. Pakistani writers in English have received international acclaim, winning prestigious literary awards and engaging in literary festivals and conferences. Their works have contributed
to the broader post-colonial discourse, interrogating power structures, reclaiming agency and offering nuanced insights into the complexities of post-colonial societies. Pakistani literature in English stands as a powerful testament to the resilience and creativity of Pakistani nation.
Summary Points
Pakistani Literature in English is historically grounded in the pre-partition era of the Indo-Pak Subcontinent. It was the period of British colonization which established the foundations of the pronounced spread of English language in the Indian territory. Eventually, literary artists of this region used the English language as a means of their creative expression to access global readership being the international lingua franca.
Pakistani literary writings in English originated within this backdrop and have earned international recognition and garnered scholarly acclaim.
Its origin can be traced to the politically charged writings of Mumtaz Shahnawaz (1912–1948), an educated Muslim female from the Subcontinent, who established the foundations of English literary writings in Pakistan. Her novel ‘The Heart Divided’ (1958) was published posthumously and is the first South Asian English novel on Partition which is, ‘permeated by a strong consciousness of herself as an educated Muslim woman and political activist, welding both the personal and the public’ (Shamsie, 2005, p. xi).
Shamsie (2008), a leading authority on Pakistani Literature in English, outlines the trajectory of contemporary English writings beginning with the publication of Bapsi Sidhwa’s debut novel, ‘The Crow Eaters’, in 1978, ‘hers was also the first English novel by a resident Pakistani since Partition to receive international recognition, regardless of gender’ (p. 2).
However, the historical roots of short story can be traced in the publication of Zaib-un-Nisa Hamidullah (1921–2000)’s, ‘The Young Wife and Other Stories’ (1958), which can be termed as the only noteworthy fiction produced by Pakistani women since 1947 (Rahman, 1991).
Rahman (1991) argues that by the 1950s, writers in Pakistan began to agree with ‘the prescriptive dictum that their work must have an extra-literary purpose, namely to “serve the society” … this propagandist and chauvinistic view of literature gained official support later’ (p. 9–10).
The contemporary generation of Pakistani writers of English reflects a spirit of national consciousness through their works by highlighting issues of social, cultural, political and religious importance.
Within the genre of fiction, Pakistani novel written in English has received much scholarly attention and critical acclaim at the national as well as international level, see for example (Waterman, 2015; Chaudary, 2013; Khan, 2013), however, short fiction ― stories received virtually little or no attention at all.
The earlier colonized nations through their writers are trying to put forward their perspective to the world at large. In doing so they are borrowing a tool of their once masters and using it to create literary texts. This tool is the English language which is providing them cultural, social, political and global dimensions. (Hassan, 2016: 126–127)
xii. Thus, postcolonial fiction is a manifestation of analytic activism which highlights social injustices that still form part of the everyday experiences of many women.
xiii. It, also, highlights an inherent inability of western feminist theory and practice which generally creates homogenized and universalistic discursive categories paying no attention to the ‘real life experiences’ of many women in the ‘third world’ and in marginalized communities of the developed world who are the victims of ‘double colonization’.
xiv. The state of scholarly critique of Pakistani literature in English is not carried out very extensively as compared to other varieties of world literature in English.
Pakistani English literature, in the present times, has established itself as a distinct and independent variety of world literature which is critically acclaimed in the English-speaking world.
xvi. The early pioneers of Pakistani English poetry, such as Daud Kamal, Shahid Suhrawardy and Alamgir Hashmi, were influenced by renowned English poets like W.B. Yeats, T.S. Eliot, and William Wordsworth.
xvii. Pakistani poets delve into topics such as the partition of India, the struggles of marginalized communities, the beauty of Pakistani landscapes and the complexities of cultural hybridity.
xviii. It offers a unique perspective on Pakistani society, history, and the lived experiences of its people, while also enriching the global poetic canon.
xix. Through its evocative verses, Pakistani poetry in English continues to leave an indelible mark on the literary landscape, ensuring that the voices and stories of the Pakistani people are heard and appreciated worldwide.
Their works have contributed to the broader post-colonial discourse, interrogating power structures, reclaiming agency and offering nuanced insights into the complexities of post-colonial societies.
Self-Assessment Questions
- How did the socio-political context of post-Partition Pakistan influence the emergence of Pakistani literature in English and what role did early writers play in shaping its foundational themes and narrative style?
- In what ways has Pakistani literature in English evolved from its early diasporic and identity-focused themes to more contemporary explorations of globalization, terrorism, and individual agency?
- Analyze how the Pakistani short story in English captures everyday socio-political tensions through brevity and symbolism with particular reference to writers of your choice.
- Examine how the Pakistani novel in English portrays national identity and historical memory through multi-generational narratives, using Mohsin Hamid’s or Kamila Shamsie’s works as case studies.
- How does Pakistani feminist fiction in English confront issues of gender, patriarchy, and female agency within both traditional and modern contexts?